Transcript of the recorded video 'Snapshots of Gaelic printing'
Anette Hagan
27 May 2020, National Library of Scotland
Feasgar math dhaibh, agus fàilte gu Leabharlann Nàiseanta na h-Alba agus an òraid seo! Is mise Anette Hagan agus tha mi ag obair mar neach-cùraim, air na leabhraichean as teirce agus as luachmhoire.
Good evening everybody and welcome to the National Library of Scotland and this talk! My name is Anette Hagan and I am a Rare Books Curator.
This talk will take about 20 minutes. There is a questions facility at the bottom of your screen. Type in your questions any time, and I'll try to answer them at the end of the talk. I'll now share a presentation with you.
I would like to take you on a whistle-stop tour of Gaelic printing.
[Image: pages of Gaelic print]
Since my remit for Gaelic stops in 1900, everybody I'm going to talk about was around between the 16th and the 19th centuries. Doesn't sound thrilling? Wait and see!
What is Gaelic printing anyway? As far as the National Library's collections are concerned, we define it as any texts in Irish or Scots Gaelic printed in Scotland, and Scots Gaelic texts printed anywhere in the world. So, books in Classical Irish are in, if they were produced in Scotland. They are easy to identify because they are written in the Roman alphabet.
[Image: printed Irish Gaelic script]
The Irish script was never used for printing in Scotland.
Let's start in the mid-18th-century with a writer who set two landmarks in the history of Gaelic printing; then I'll take you back to where it all started, and I'll end with a 19th-century favourite.
Since all our out of copyright Gaelic items have been digitised, you'll see images of the books as I'm talking about them, and you can, of course, read the complete books online for free any time it suits you. So here we go!
[Image: a National Library of Scotland webpage titled 'Rare Items in Gaelic']
Up until 1741, every single Gaelic book printed in Scotland was of a religious nature. Then along comes Alexander MacDonald, Alasdair MacMhaighstir Alasdair. He is in his early 40s, has fought for the Jacobites at the Battle of Sheriffmuir, attended Glasgow University and adhered to Episcopalianism until the death of his father Maighstir Alasdair, who was an Episcopalian minister. He then becomes a Presbyterian and the SSPCK, the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge, appoints him as schoolmaster and catechist in Ardnamurchan. They commission him to produce a Gaelic-English dictionary for use in their charity schools, with the long-term aim of eradicating Gaelic through proficiency in English.
This is one of the landmarks of Gaelic printing I mentioned: the first non-religious printed book, the 1741 'Leabhar a theagasc ainmeannan: no, an nuadhfhocloir gaoidheilg & beurla, A Galick and English Vocabulary.'
[Image: title pages from Leabhar a theagasc ainmeannan]
Having secretly become a Catholic, MacMhaighstir Alasdair deserts his school and joins the Jacobites for the 1745 Rising. Later, he works as a factor on the Clanranald Estate and writes poetry. In 1751, his 'Ais-eiridh na sean chánoin Albannaich; no, An nuadh òranaiche Gaidhealach, The resurrection of the ancient Scottish language or the new Highland songster', becomes the first book of Gaelic poetry to be printed in Scotland.
[Image: title page Ais-eiridh na sean chánoin Albannaich']
Twelve copies are known to have survived, and our copy appears to offer an explanation for this apparent rarity. An inscription at the front claims, and I quote, 'Numerous copies of this collection were burnt by the hands of the common hangman in Edinburgh in 1752 by order of the Government'. An intriguing story — but thanks in particular to the scholar Ronald Black, we know that not a shred of contemporary evidence supporting this claim exists. Rather, the fact that few copies survive is, if anything, evidence of the popularity of the book: it was literally read to pieces. Poems come alive when read aloud, and they were recited and also sung at ceilidhs and the copies surely wandered from hand to hand. It is also true that a dozen surviving copies of an 18th-century work is about average.
So, MacMhaighstir Alasdair’s dictionary and his poems were the first two non-religious books printed in Gaelic. But what about the religious texts that heralded the start of Gaelic printing and remained its mainstay for nearly 200 years?
The very first Gaelic book to be printed in Scotland was 'Foirm na n-Urrnuidheadh, The forms of the prayers', a translation of the Book of Common Order. It was published in 1567. The translation was done by Séon Carsuel, John Carswell, Bishop of the Isles and supporter of Protestant policies. He was one of the highly educated clergy who was literate in both Classical Irish, also called Classical Gaelic or the Classical dialect, as well as in English. Only three copies of the book survive, all of them imperfect, and none of them at the National Library, so unfortunately, I cannot show you an image of it.
[Image: a portrait of John Knox]
But I can give you some background. In 1556, the Scottish Reformer John Knox lived in Frankfurt in Germany — there he wrote a directory for public worship in the Reformed Church, the Book of Common Order. In 1560, Scotland became Protestant. In 1562, this Book of Common Order, also known as John Knox's Liturgy, was adopted for use in Scotland. And only 5 years later it appeared in Gaelic translation!
Let me add a bit of printing history too — the first books printed in Scotland are dated 1508.
[Image: rare printed books printed by Myllar and Chepman]
By 1567, when the Gaelic version of Knox’s liturgy appeared, a grand total of 75 works had been printed in Scotland; this was the 76th. Only Edinburgh and St Andrews had a printing press at all. And the most productive printer in the country, Robert Lekpreuik, also produced the Gaelic version of Knox’s Liturgy. The language of this translation, as mentioned, is the refined and static Classical dialect employed by the bards, the court poets in Early Modern Scotland.
Carswell used it partly because of its prestige — the professional bards not only had to undergo lengthy training in bardic schools in order to become accomplished, they were also highly regarded as the custodians of the conservative social order of Gaelic society, the praises of whose chiefs they sang. But there was a more basic reason for Bishop Carswell's use of the Classical dialect for his translation— it was the only written form of Gaelic available. And incidentally, this was also the first written language north of the Alps apart from Latin.
Carswell's lasting achievement was to provide an entirely new lexicon for Reformed worship in Gaelic. He was adamant that printing in Gaelic should only be for religious edification and not for spreading 'vain, hurtful, lying, earthly stories'. And he was to be right for a long time to come.
The second book printed in Gaelic, of which the National Library holds the sole witness, the only known copy, is a translation of John Calvin's 'Catechismus Ecclesiae Genevensis', his catechism for the Church in Geneva. The title page is no longer present, and the first heading, 'Adtimchiol an chreidimh', About the creed, is the title by which this translation is known.
[Image: 'Adtimchiol an chreidimh']
Because there is no title page, there is no imprint and so we can't be 100 percent sure where, when and by whom it was printed. But it is bound together in one volume with the English version of Calvin's Catechism, which does have its title page and imprint — and that was produced in 1631 by the Edinburgh printer John Wreittoun. The type or font used for this English translation is identical with that used for the Gaelic version, and we therefore assume that both came from the same press at the same time.
So, by 1631, over 60 years had elapsed since the printing of the first book in Gaelic. Nearly 30 years would pass before the next one appeared. And this was another translation, this time of the first 50 metrical Psalms. Done by the Synod of Argyll, it came out in 1659, and the complete psalter another 35 years later, in 1694.
[Image: page titled 'Sailm Dhaibhidh']
However, ten years earlier, a different translation of the psalms by Robert Kirk, minister at Balquhidder, had been published.
[Image: page titled 'Psalma Dhaibhidh' appears next to 'Sailm Dhaibhidh']
The two translations of the same original text are only ten years apart, but when you compare their title pages you get a right good insight into the spelling variations at the end of the 17th century. Just look at the first word, 'Psalma' versus 'Sailm', is the most obvious one. Why was there no more uniformity? There was no standard spelling to start with, and both versions were translations from Hebrew and thus trying to invent the wheel, as it were.
Robert Kirk, incidentally, had also supervised the transliteration of the Irish Bible by changing the text from the Irish script into the roman alphabet. That was in 1690. The fact that a straight transliteration was deemed sufficient is a clear indication that the literary Gaelic of Ireland and Scotland was mutually intelligible, even though the vernacular, spoken versions had become distinctly different. And another wee fact about Robert Kirk — he also believed firmly in the fairies!
So, before 1700, only four Gaelic texts were printed in Scotland, all of them translations of important religious books: Knox's Liturgy, Calvin's Catechism, and the Psalms — everything a good Presbyterian needs! Apart from the Bible, which followed in due course.
The New Testament was translated first, straight from the original Greek. It came out in 1767.
[Image: title page of the Gaelic Old Testament]
The Gaelic Old Testament appeared in four instalments between 1783 and 1801, with the first complete Gaelic Bible only being published in 1807 in London by the British and Foreign Bible Society. The ability to read Gaelic was founded on the Bible but this meant learning the Classical dialect.
After the failure of the 1745 Jacobite Rising and the destruction of the strict social order of Gaelic society, the classical bardic tradition came to an end — what's the use of panegyric if there's nobody to praise? More to the point, if there is no patronage, who will pay the poet?
Almost ironically, this decline became a catalyst for more literary diversity. Alasdair MacMhaighstir Alasdair's foray into poetry that praised nature, women, pets, the seasons and the language itself rather than clan chiefs paved the way for more unofficial or folk poetry if you like.
In fact, the second half of the 18th century saw the widest variety of Gaelic verse of any century. Let me pick out the Argyll poet Duncan Ban MacIntyre, Donnchadh Bàn nan Oran or Blond-haired Duncan of the Songs, as he was fondly known. A poet of jollidity and good company, he composed poetry from a young age, even though he was illiterate. Steeped in the oral tradition, he memorised his poems and eventually recited them to the Rev. Donald MacNicol, who wrote them down for publication.
The National Library holds copies of all editions of Duncan Ban's poetry, including the first edition of 1768.
[Image: Title page reading 'Orain Ghaidhealach le Donchadh Mac-An-T-Saoir']
His most famous poem is arguably 'Moladh Beinn Dòbhrain', 'In praise of Ben Doran', a nature poem of some 550 lines praising the mountain, deer and hunting.
[Image: poem titled 'Oran Bein-Deurein']
The 18th century was also a high point for broadsides, like this intriguing slip song entitled 'An seudagan beag greannar, The little humorous jewel box'.
[Image: broadside titled 'An seudagan beag greannar']
Printed ostensibly in 1777 in Baile nam Fiasgan — that's Musselburgh, not exactly a Gaelic-speaking town — it is ascribed to Duin'uasal àraid, a strange gentleman, and the imprint tells us that it is to be sold by yellow-haired Catriana and the old fiddler on every trip in the Highlands and from Mull of Kintyre to John O'Groats! Not only that, but it's to be had for thruppence from girls and two shillings from boys! Somebody clearly had fun with this.
The 18th century also saw a surge of Gaelic religious poetry, in particular in the wake of the Evangelical Revival. After the shattering of Gaelic society, many experienced a radical conversion to an austere and passionate evangelical faith; they were known as na daoine, the men, meaning the laymen and clergy drawn from the lower classes.
The foremost poet of the Evangelical Revival was Dùghall Bochanan, Dugald Buchanan, from Balquhidder. He assisted with the translation of the New Testament into Gaelic, and in 1767 he published his own poetry, 'Laoidh spioradail, Spiritual hymn'. Our earliest copy dates from 1773, and this is worn and mutilated through heavy use.
[Image: worn edition of 'Laoidh spioradail']
Our copy of the second edition, 'Comh-chruineacha do Laoidhibh Spioradail, Collection of spiritual hymns', published posthumously in 1784, has fared a little better.
[Image: edition of 'Comh-chruineacha do Laoidhibh Spioradail']
Buchanan's poems remained in print at least until 1913. They were read widely at home, and even WWI soldiers took copies to the battlefield with them for solace. They were also set and sung to traditional secular melodies, making them so much more memorable.
Gaelic prose publications also began to increase from the mid-18th century. The earlier religious translations had helped re-discover Gaelic prose literacy, and to transform it slowly from the Classical dialect into a more vernacular variety. By the first half of the 19th century, Gaelic secular prose had fully developed. It was not only used for historical and supernatural tales or heroic legends, but for all purposes.
In 1848, an issue of the periodical 'Fear-tathaich nam beann, The mountain visitor', for instance carried an article about the progress of the Asian cholera through Scotland.
[Image: 'Fear-tathaich nam bean']
The same issue also has a biographical sketch of 'Dùghall Bochanan', and an account of the inhabitants of Pitcairn's Island among other articles.
Indeed, the Gaelic periodical press and newspapers played a crucial part in the development of the new vernacular register of Gaelic. The earliest periodical of which copies survive, 'An Teachdaire Gaelach, The Gaelic Courier', was published in 1829.
[Image: page titled 'Teachdaire Gaelach' and a page titled 'An Fhianuis']
Religious journals like the Free Church's publication 'An Fhianuis, The Witness', were also very popular. A particular feature of the periodicals was the substantial body of dialogues they carried. And of course, these journals were not only popular with Gaelic speakers in Scotland, but also with the increasing number of emigrants from the Highlands and Islands in the diaspora. Indeed, of the 16 Gaelic periodical titles published in the 19th century, four appeared in Canada and one in Australia!
The 19th century also saw a proliferation of anthologies, for instance collections of proverbs and also cheap print products like chapbooks; they formed the staple reading diet of the common people right across Britain and Ireland. Some 15 Gaelic chapbooks are known. Love songs were a particular favourite, as were laments — anything that could be performed and thus shared.
[Image: an assortment of pages of Gaelic print].
The increase of Gaelic publications in the 19th century also brought some earlier poets into print. The famous 17th-century Harris poetess Mary MacLeod, Màiri Nighean Alasdair Ruaidh, finally had some of her work published, for instance in a chapbook. Two poems of the 17th-century Keppoch poet Iain Lom appeared in 1821 as slip songs. And now the verse of the 18th-century Sutherland poet Robert MacKay, Rob Donn, a vivid observer of Gaelic society, finally appeared in print — half a century after his death.
[Image: two pages with Gaelic print, one titled 'Oran Eile' and the other titled 'Orain le Rob Donn'].
The proliferation of Gaelic printing in the 19th century took place while no liberal education in Gaelic was possible, and therefore literacy in Gaelic was often self-taught.
I'd like to end this talk with one of the most famous 19th-century Gaelic figures — the Skye poetess Mary MacPherson, Màiri Mhòr nan Oran, Great Mary of the Songs. At the age of 51, she was incarcerated on a wrong charge of theft, and in prison she found her poetic voice. In her poetry she expressed her outrage at her false imprisonment, and after her release she composed Gaelic verse often in support of political causes such as the land league.
Song still was, at the end of the 19th century, an important channel for the dissemination of news and information, in particular for those illiterate in Gaelic. Indeed, Màiri Mhòr nan Oran herself was not fully literate — she could read Gaelic, but she could not write it. Her collection of songs first published in Inverness in 1891 with the bilingual title 'Poems and Songs by Mary MacPherson — Dàin agus òrain Ghàidhlig' was transcribed from her recitation.
[Image: title page of 'Dàin agus òrain Ghàidhlig' and poem titled 'Nuair a bha mi òg'].
And with Màiri Mhòr's famous poem 'Nuair a bha mi òg' our whistle-stop tour of printing in Gaelic ends. Mòran taing — thank you very much for listening!